The Appalachian elktoe (''Alasmidonta raveneliana'') is a

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

freshwater mussel Freshwater bivalves are one kind of freshwater mollusc, along with freshwater snails. They are bivalves that live in fresh water as opposed to salt water, which is the main habitat type for bivalves. The majority of species of bivalve molluscs ...

in the family

Unionidae The Unionidae are a family of freshwater mussels, the largest in the order Unionida, the bivalve molluscs sometimes known as river mussels, or simply as unionids. The range of distribution for this family is world-wide. It is at its most diverse ...

, the river mussels. It is native to the United States, where it is known only from

North Carolina North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...

and

Tennessee Tennessee ( , ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked state in the Southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th-largest by area and the 15th-most populous of the 50 states. It is bordered by Kentucky to th ...

Description

The Appalachian elktoe has a "thin, kidney-shaped shell, reaching up to about 10 centimeters (4 inches)." Younger mussels normally have a yellowish-brown periostracum (outer shell layer), while more mature mussels generally have a dark brown to greenish-brown periostracum. Features on the outer shell of the mussel, whether juvenile or adult, are often fine or hard to distinguish. In some cases streaks or waves are apparent, which are most easily noticeable on the dorsal region of the outer shell. Most individuals however have green waves, which are a similar hue as the rest of the shell and are often minute. Inside the shell, the

nacre Nacre ( , ), also known as mother of pearl, is an organicinorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer; it is also the material of which pearls are composed. It is strong, resilient, and iridescent. Nacre is f ...

has a sheen which is white, blue, and silver. The center of the inner shell changes from a light, almost translucent shine, to a more pink or tan color. Some species have irregular spots or blotches in the center of the nacre that are much darker than the rest of the lining of the shell.Fridell, J. A. 1999. Appalachian elktoe in North Carolina.

Habitat

Despite the rarity of the species, and the lack of information about the Appalachian elktoe, their habitat is very easily described because of the similarity to that of other species of freshwater mussels. ''Alasmidonta raveneliana'' is found mostly in shallow to medium-sized creeks or rivers. They prefer cooler temperature water with fast-flowing to moderately-flowing currents. They are found near sections of the water where there is more rock or gravel at the bottom, as opposed to water that flows over areas with clay or silt on the bottom. (Appalachian elktoe mussels do not survive well in areas of streams where there are clay or silt particles moving in the water current.) The species has been found in areas with varying sizes of rock such as sand, gravel, and boulders, and ideally prefers an area that has a combination of all three. Appalachian elktoe need stability in order to survive, so they are not found in any areas where there is shifting gravel or rocks which can threaten the survival of the mussels.Department of Interior. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Appalachian Elktoe Determined to be an Endangered Species. ''Federal Register'' 59(225):60324-60334.

Life cycle

Many aspects of the life cycle of the Appalachian Elktoe are still unknown. The species is hard to find, and populations are decreasing. Currently, it is not known what the Appalachian Elktoe feed on, what fish they use as host fish, or how long their life span is. It is however a very sensitive species, and this makes it difficult to study. Like other mollusks, the Appalachian Elktoe feeds itself by picking out particles of food that are in the water. The specifics of their diet has yet to be determined, but it has been assumed that the Appalachian Elktoe survives off the same things as other freshwater mussels: detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton (Churchill and Lewis, 1921). The reproductive cycle of the Appalachian Elktoe is also similar to other native freshwater mussels. First, the male releases a trail of sperm into the water column. Then, when females come in contact with the sperm, they take it in through their siphons. Normally this process occurs during either respiration or feeding. Once the females have taken the sperm in, they retain it in their gills until the larvae (

glochidia The glochidium (plural glochidia) is a microscopic larval stage of some freshwater mussels, aquatic bivalve mollusks in the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae, the river mussels and European freshwater pearl mussels. These larvae are ...

) have matured and are fully developed. After the larvae are ready, they are then released from the female's gills into the water. Shortly thereafter, the baby mussels will find a host fish to live off for a period of time. When the mussels have grown into juveniles, they will then detach themselves from the host fish, and continue maturation on their own. This stage of the mussels' life-cycle is one that not all mussels go through. In order for the mussels to survive the separation from the host fish, they need to detach themselves in a suitable area. Only one species of fish has been identified as a host fish for the Appalachian Elktoe: the Banded Sculpin or '' Cottus carolinae''.

Distribution

The Appalachian elktoe is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

to mountain river streams in western

and eastern

. Although historical information is unavailable, it is believed that the species once lived in a much larger area in the bigger creeks and streams of the upper

Tennessee River The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once popularly known as the Cherokee River, among other names, ...

systems. Currently, the Appalachian elktoe has very fragmented populations: the mussels survive in scattered sections of suitable habitat in portions of the

Little Tennessee River The Little Tennessee River is a tributary of the Tennessee River that flows through the Blue Ridge Mountains from Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia, into North Carolina, and then into Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. It drains portio ...

system, the Pigeon River system, the

Little River Little River may refer to several places: Australia Streams New South Wales *Little River (Dubbo), source in the Dubbo region, a tributary of the Macquarie River * Little River (Oberon), source in the Oberon Shire, a tributary of Coxs River (Haw ...

in North Carolina and the

Nolichucky River The Nolichucky River is a river that flows through Western North Carolina and East Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. Traversing the Pisgah National Forest and the Cherokee National Forest in the Blue Ridge Mountains, the river's wate ...

system in North Carolina and Tennessee. In the Little Tennessee River system in North Carolina, populations survive in the reach of the main stem of the Little Tennessee River, between the city of

Franklin Franklin may refer to: People * Franklin (given name) * Franklin (surname) * Franklin (class), a member of a historical English social class Places Australia * Franklin, Tasmania, a township * Division of Franklin, federal electoral d ...

and

Fontana Reservoir Fontana may refer to: Places Italy *Fontana Liri, comune in the Province of Frosinone *Fontanafredda, comune in the Province of Pordenone *Fontanarosa, comune in the Province of Avellino *Francavilla Fontana, comune in the Province of Brindisi * ...

, in Swain and Macon counties (Service 1994, 1996; McGrath 1999; Fridell, pers. observation, 2002), and in scattered reaches of the main stem of the

Tuckasegee River The Tuckasegee River (variant spellings include Tuckaseegee and Tuckaseigee) flows entirely within western North Carolina. It begins its course in Jackson County above Cullowhee at the confluence of Panthertown and Greenland creeks. It flows ...

Jackson Jackson may refer to: People and fictional characters * Jackson (name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the surname or given name Places Australia * Jackson, Queensland, a town in the Maranoa Region * Jackson North, Qu ...

and Swain counties, from below the town of

Cullowhee Cullowhee
, from the North Carolina Collection website at the

downstream to

Bryson City Bryson City is a town in Swain County, North Carolina, Swain County, North Carolina in the United States. The population was 1558 as of the 2020 Census. It is the county seat of Swain County. Located in what was historically the land of the Cherok ...

(M. Cantrell, Service, pers. comm. 1996; Fridell, pers. observation 1996, 1997; McGrath 1998; T. Savidge, North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT), pers. comm. 2001). The populations in each of these rivers are very small, ranging from two live mussels to fifteen. Normally however, averages of only two to four mussels are found together at the same site of these river systems. The species continues to be very spread out wherever it survives. This can make it difficult to find Appalachian elktoe in their habitat, especially when there are only two or three mussels per site. Historically, the geographic range of the species was broader and ranged from Tulula Creek to the main stems of the

French Broad River The French Broad River is a river in the U.S. states of North Carolina and Tennessee. It flows from near the town of Rosman in Transylvania County, North Carolina, into Tennessee, where its confluence with the Holston River at Knoxville forms ...

and the

Swannanoa River The Swannanoa River flows through the Swannanoa Valley of the region of Western North Carolina, and is a major tributary to the French Broad River. Its headwaters arise in Black Mountain, NC; however, it also has a major tributary near its head ...

, but the Appalachian elktoe have not been spotted in these bodies of water recently, and it has been assumed that they no longer inhabit the areas. It has also been documented that the species used to live in the

North Fork Holston River The Holston River is a river that flows from Kingsport, Tennessee, to Knoxville, Tennessee. Along with its three major forks (North Fork, Middle Fork and South Fork), it comprises a major river system that drains much of northeastern Tennessee, ...

. Later studies at that site proved that a similar species of mussel was found in the area, but not the Appalachian elktoe itself. It is still somewhat of a mystery as to whether the species actually did at one time live in the North Fork Holston River, but even so, the species will not be found in that area today. As of 1996, only two populations of Appalachian elktoe were known to be surviving. One of the populations was found in the main stem of the Little Tennessee River, and the other was found scattered about in the main stem of the

in various counties of North Carolina.

Endangerment

The Appalachian elktoe was added to the

Federal Register The ''Federal Register'' (FR or sometimes Fed. Reg.) is the official journal of the federal government of the United States that contains government agency rules, proposed rules, and public notices. It is published every weekday, except on feder ...

Endangered Species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and inv ...

on November 23, 1994. The exact cause for the decline of the species is unknown. Many factors have been blamed for the endangerment, including

siltation Siltation, is water pollution caused by particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the increased accumulation (temporary or ...

from logging, mining, common agricultural practices, and also area construction work.

Runoff Runoff, run-off or RUNOFF may refer to: * RUNOFF, the first computer text-formatting program * Runoff or run-off, another name for bleed, printing that lies beyond the edges to which a printed sheet is trimmed * Runoff or run-off, a stock market ...

into the river systems can seriously affect the species' survival, since the mussels only live in clean, well-oxygenated streams. The runoff and discharge of pollutants from industrial, agricultural, and municipal sources can cause major damage to the sensitive species. Human alterations of the species' habitat, such as dredging, damming, and other forms of channel manipulation, also have been considered responsible for declining populations. Changing aquatic environments without proper sedimentation control does not only negatively affect river mussels, but most other freshwater species as well. Mussels are somewhat stationary; they are unable to move long distances, which is why they live in very specific, stable habitats that fulfill all of their needs. Their immobility hinders their survival, because they are unable to adapt to constantly changing aquatic environments. When their habitat is constantly being tampered with, they are unable to fully develop and reproduce. The species was first noticed to be declining in populations some time after

Hurricane Frances Hurricane Frances was the second most intense tropical cyclone in the Atlantic during 2004 and proved to be very destructive in Florida. It was the sixth named storm, the fourth hurricane, and the third major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hu ...

and

Hurricane Ivan Hurricane Ivan was a large, long-lived, Cape Verde hurricane that caused widespread damage in the Caribbean and United States. The cyclone was the ninth named storm, the sixth hurricane and the fourth major hurricane of the active 2004 Atlan ...

hit the Southeastern region of the United States in the early 1990s. Although the landscape was changed due to the high winds and heavy rain of the hurricanes, naturally occurring storms do not threaten the Appalachian elktoe. When humans tamper with the naturally occurring state of the streams however, it is very difficult for the Appalachian elktoe, as well as other mussel species, to remain healthy.Shaw, K. M., T. L. King, W. A. Lellis, and M. S. Eachles. 2006. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in alasmidonta heterodon (bivalvia: Unionidae). ''Molecular Ecology Notes'' 6(2):365. Siltation in the rivers is one of the biggest threats to freshwater mussels. Naturally occurring siltation usually does not bother the species, because it is on a much smaller scale. Siltation caused by human interaction both directly and indirectly affects mussels: it causes the natural patterns of the rivers to change. It can also create mounds on the bottom of the streams, which not only cover the rocks that mussels prefer to live next to, but also creates areas in the water that are difficult for the mussels' host fish to swim in, causing serious species fragmentation. Siltation also degrades the quality of the water and exposes mussels to many more pollutants than they would naturally be exposed to. A study done in 1936 found that even one inch of unnatural sedimentation in the habitat causes high mortality rates in most mussels, including the Appalachian ekltoe (Ellis). Juveniles and reproduction are also seriously affected by even small amounts of sedimentation. When the clean, well-oxygenated water of the mussels' habitat gets a certain amount of sedimentation, the juveniles are not able to develop properly, because the silt clogs the gills of the host fish that they parasitize themselves on. Most mussels are sensitive to many pollutants, and some of the most harmful pollutants are different forms of

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, higher than normal concentrations of nutrients, and

chlorine Chlorine is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate betwee ...

.Vaughn, C. C., C. M. Taylor. 1999. Impoundments and the Decline of Freshwater Mussels: A Case Study of an Extinction Gradient. ''Conservation Biology'' 13(4): 912-920. Because of the irregularity of the habitat of the Appalachian elktoe and similar mussel species, on September 27, 2002, over of river area in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee were deemed

critical habitat Critical habitat is a habitat area essential to the conservation of a listed species, though the area need not actually be occupied by the species at the time it is designated. This is a specific term and designation within the U.S. Endangered Spec ...

. Critical habitat is an area that the government has reserved for monitoring and protecting, in an effort to save species currently inhabiting that area. By declaring the Appalachian elktoe's habitat critical, it allows for management plans to be fully implemented and for penalties or fines to be created for partaking in activities that may lead to the species' decline.

Recovery plan

In August 1996, a recovery plan was published in order to save the endangered mussels. It is a regional plan that includes all the areas where the species currently lives, and also areas where the species was thought to live in the past. The ultimate goal of the recovery plan is, of course, to upgrade the species off the Endangered Species List. Presently the Appalachian elktoe is considered critically endangered, and it is unknown if they are still in fact actively reproducing. Originally when the recovery plan was made, the species was supposed to be down-listed from endangered to threatened. There are four main steps to the recovery plan that promote the de-listing of the Appalachian elktoe. The first step, whether by establishing new populations or by protecting existing populations, is to have at least four stable populations of Appalachian elktoe surviving in sites that are thought to be in their historic range. Ideally there will be one population in each of the Little Tennessee, French Broad, and Nolichucky River systems. The second step, which can only be accomplished after the first step is deemed a success, is to create different age groups of the mussels in these river systems. Three age groups must be surviving in order for a population to keep reproducing: juveniles, adults, and developing larvae (glochidia). The third step in the recovery plan is to keep all the new populations of mussels in stabilized and unthreatened habitat. This will be done by monitoring the streams frequently and protecting them from threatening factors of the past, as well as possible threats that might occur in future instances. The fourth and final step to recovering the Appalachian elktoe is to maintain stability in all four populations, and possibly have them increasing by the next ten or fifteen years.Hoggarth, M. A., D. A. Kimberly, and Van Allen, Benjamin G. 2007. A study of the mussels (mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionidae) of Symmes Creek and tributaries in Jackson, Gallia and Lawrence counties, Ohio. ''Ohio Journal of Science'' 107(4):57. In order for the species to be completely de-listed, more criteria must be met. Instead of only four viable, reproducing populations of Appalachian elktoe, there must be a least six that are surviving on their own. Like the initial recovery plan, ideally there will be at least one population in the Little Tennessee, French Broad, and Nolichucky River systems. The next requirement is to have at least three age classes in each of the six populations. This includes a whole age class of juveniles and gravid females, in order to make sure reproduction is occurring, and occurring steadily. Once this goal is met, the next requirement for de-listing is to make sure that the habitats of these populations are not in danger or susceptible to habitat destruction. Finally, like the fourth requirement in the first recovery plan, the last criteria for delisting is that all six populations remain stable and hopefully increasing steadily within a period of ten to fifteen years. In order to take all the necessary steps in these recovery plans, some actions need to be taken. The first and most important action to saving the Appalachian elktoe is to utilize

legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolled bill, enrolling, enactment of a bill, enacting, or promulgation, promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous Government, governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law i ...

and keep the species protected at all times. Along with informing local and federal legislation about the endangered species, the public needs to be informed as well. Education programs on mussels in the Southeastern region of the United States are crucial, not only for the survival of the Appalachian elktoe, but also for the survival of other similar endangered mussels in the area. Another very important action to take is constant monitoring of the existing populations as well as searching and controlling developing populations. Monitoring the species is crucial in recovery, but unfortunately not a lot of information has been collected on the Appalachian elktoe. In order to fully benefit from all the steps of the recovery more information must be found. This is one of the most important actions needed to be taken. Ideally, the species' historical records, habitat requirements, and threats will all be found over the course of the recovery plan. By determining important factors such as previous distribution and exact diet, it will enable the use of the most valuable information on how to save the Appalachian elktoe. Discovering this information also will permit implementation of valuable and informative management plans. The costs of the recovery plan were originally unknown. Because of the lack of information on the species, it is not known exactly what funding needs to be spent on, and also how much needs to be spent. It is estimated that the costs will increase annually over the ten to fifteen-year period. This is so because as more research is found, hopefully more species will have been established more species which will require more funds. The costs of this recovery are difficult to establish also because it normally takes mussels until age five to start reproducing, therefore a full ten years is needed to study reproduction rates and what affects them.

Notes

References

*1996. Recovery plan for the Appalachian elktoe (''Alasmidonta raveneliana'') Lea. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Ga. 31 pp. *2002. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designating critical habitat for the Appalachian elktoe. *Bauer, G., Hochwald, S. and Wilkenat, W. 1991. Spatial distribution of freshwater mussels: The role of host fish and metabolic rate. ''Freshw Biol'' 26:377-386. *Department of Interior. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Appalachian Elktoe Determined to be an Endangered Species. ''Federal Register'' 59(225):60324-60334. *Fridell, J. A. 1999. Appalachian elktoe in North Carolina. *Hoggarth, M. A., D. A. Kimberly, and Van Allen, Benjamin G. 2007. A study of the mussels (mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionidae) of Symmes Creek and tributaries in Jackson, Gallia and Lawrence counties, Ohio. ''Ohio Journal of Science'' 107(4):57. *Howard, J.K., K. M. Cuffey. 2006. The functional role of native freshwater mussels in the fluvial benthic environment - ''Freshw Biol'' 51:460-474. *Neves, R. J., A. E. Bogan, J. D. Williams, S. A. Ahlstedt, and P. W. Hartfield. 1997. Status of Aquatic Mollusks in the Southeastern United States: A Downward Spiral of Diversity. in G. W. Benz and D. E. Collins, editors. ''Aquatic Fauna in Peril: The Southeastern Perspective''. *Shaw, K. M., T. L. King, W. A. Lellis, and M. S. Eachles. 2006. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in alasmidonta heterodon (bivalvia: Unionidae). ''Molecular Ecology Notes'' 6(2):365. *Strayer, D. L., J. A. Downing, W. R. Haag, T. L. King, J. B. Layzer, T. J. Newton, and S. J. Nichols. 2004. Changing perspectives on pearly mussels, North America's most imperiled animals. ''Bioscience'' 54(5):429. *Vaughn, C. C., C. M. Taylor. 1999. Impoundments and the Decline of Freshwater Mussels: A Case Study of an Extinction Gradient. ''Conservation Biology'' 13(4): 912-920. {{DEFAULTSORT:Appalachian Elktoe Alasmidonta Molluscs of the United States Ecology of the Appalachian Mountains Critically endangered fauna of the United States Bivalves described in 1834 Taxonomy articles created by Polbot Taxa named by Isaac Lea ESA endangered species